Meaning- Testing of rational things through evidences is Nyay.

Nyay is basically estimation of metaphysical meaning. This estimation is helpful in attaining all kinds of knowledge and carrying out all kinds of action. Hence, it has major importance in Nyay Darshan. It is the rule of nomenclature that after the main element, entire group can be named. Since, Nyay is the name of metaphysical estimation and it is the main body of this philosophical stream, hence it is named Nyay Darshan. Nyay also means major evidence or decision. Hence, it is the main object of Nyay Darshan.

All the five chapters of Nyay Sutra have two parts each, which are read all through the day. In the first part of the first chapter, Gautam sheds light on the symptoms of nine materials like evidences etc. In the second part, symptoms of seven materials like ism have been discussed. In the first part of the second chapter, doubt has been scrutinized and attempts have been made to remove the doubts of those who question the authenticity of evidences. In the second part, such reasoning is shown in which one topic is automatically proved with the help of another. The first part of the third chapter tests soul, body, sense organs and implications. The second part tests the mind and the intellect. In the first part of fourth chapter, tendency, demerits, rebirth, result, sorrow and heaven have been tested. In the second part, causes of the demerits have been scrutinized. The first part of the fifth and last chapter contains a description of the differences between the castes and in the second part, kinds of refraining have been discussed.

1. Pramaan (Evidence)
2. Prameya (Rational)
3. Shansheya (Doubt)
4. Prayojan (Purpose)
5. Drishtaant (Vision)
6. Siddhant (Principle)
7. Avayava (Ingredients)
8. Tarka (Logic)
9. Nirnaya (decision)
10. Vaad (ism)
11. Jalpa (babbling)
12. Vitanda (controversy)
13. Hitvabhaas (parallelism)
14. Chhala (craftiness)
15. Jaati (caste)
16. Nigraha sthaan (place of controlling)

1. Prataksha (Direct evidence)
2. Anumaan ( estimation)
3. Upamaan (comparison)
4. Shabdabheda (evidence based on sound)

Prataksha Pramaan (Direct evidence): It is based on the direct interaction between the material and the sense organs. Seeing a picture for example with eyes is direct evidence. In direct evidence, there exists no doubt regarding the reality of anything.

Anumaan (estimation): It is based on the pervasiveness of the object. Suppose, only smoke is all that is visible but one can infer from it that there must be a fire also. Estimation has three steps- 1) Visibility of something. 2) Estimation and 3) Inference.

In Nyay Darshan, three kinds of estimation have been recognized. Inference of the work on the basis of the reason. Inference of the reason on the basis of the work.General inference such as inference of motion on the basis of change of place.

Proponents of neo-Nyay recognize only two kinds of estimation- Swartha (Inference by the self and for the self) Paraartha (Inference shared with other people)

Upamaan (comparison): Knowledge of an unknown object through comparison of it with some renowned thing. For example, if someone, who has never seen a gaur (Indian species of bison), when hears that it resembles a cow, he compares it with the cow and decides that a gaur must be like a cow in appearance. Thus, such knowledge is based on the comparison of an unknown thing with a well known thing.
Shabda (Sound): Nyaysutra recognizes two kinds of sound- Drishtaarth and Adrishtaarth. Sound that accompanies a visible thing is Drishtarth sound while sound describes something that cannot be seen, it is known as Adrishtaarth. As for example, someone goes to Siberia and describes the scene of snowfall verbally. Here the words described something that can be seen. But if someone speaks of heaven, then the words are describing something that cannot be seen. These two kinds of sound are also known as physical and Vedic.

Through these four evidences, Nyay Shastra learns about and scrutinizes the rational things. Evidence has an important place in Nyay philosophy. Neo-Nyay is purely based on evidences. This gravity of discussion regarding evidences as seen in Indian philosophy is absent in the western system of philosophy. That is why, Nyay is known as the philosophy of the philosophies. All the other streams of philosophy borrow words from Nyay to put forward their thoughts. Hence, they are all indebted to Nyay.

DESCRIPTION OF RATIONAL THINGS

Rational things form the second material of Nyay Shastra. Sage Gautam has given symptoms of rational things in the first chapter and methods of testing them in the third and fourth chapters.

PRAMAAYAAM YADDHI PRATIBHAASTE TATPREMEYAM|

Meaning- The only that thing is rational which can be experienced in reality. Thus, the material existence of which can be proved through true knowledge is rational. According to sage Gautam, twelve things are rational that is existence of which could be proved.

AATMASHARIREENDRAYAARTHBUDDHIMANAH PRAVRITTI-DOSHA-PRETYABHAAV- PHAL- DUKHAAPVARGABHEDAAT|

Meaning- Soul, body, sense organs, material, intellect, mind, tendency, demerits, cycles of life and death, result, sorrow and salvation, these twelve things are rational.

Soul: Soul is all-pervasive and continuous. A soul full of knowledge can see everyone and experience everyone. A soul exists as the supreme soul and the microcosm. The omnipresent and all knowing supreme soul is one whereas a microcosm soul present in trillions of organisms is nothing but different manifestation of the supreme soul. Desire, jealousy, happiness, sorrow, efforts and knowledge are the virtues of the soul. A soul has a sensation for these virtues.

Body: Body is the basis of soul’s enjoyment. All the efforts and actions are carried out by the body for the soul.

Sense organs: Body is, in itself, incomplete without sense organs to carry out the functions for the soul. It is the sense organs that act as the channel between the soul and the external environment. Nose, ear, tongue, eyes and skin- these five are the sense organs powered by earth, water, fire, air and ether.

Material: Everything that is enjoyed through the sense organs is known as material. Like the number of the sense organs, the number of enjoyable material is also five. These are- smell or scent, sound, taste, appearance or beauty and touch enjoyed by the nose, ear, tongue, eyes and skin.

Intellect: It is full of conscience and is separate from the domain of the body and the sense organs. Sage Gautam regards knowledge and wisdom synonymous with intellect.

Mind: Mind is the means of experiencing the feelings like happiness, sorrow etc. Hence it is also regarded as the sixth sense that understands the inner feelings. Its greatest feature is to prevent the arising of too many confusing discourses.

Tendency: According to Gautam, physical, verbal and mental activities are included in the domain of tendency. In the consideration of auspicious and inauspicious, all these three activities are of six types. It should be remembered that it is because of tendency that the soul wanders through the cycle of life and death.

Demerits: Anything that produces tendency is known as demerit. Demerits are also of three kinds- anger, jealousy and attachment. These three demerits leads a person to sins or piousness. False knowledge produces anger and jealousy. Soul bears the intensity of these demerits. Controlled by these demerits, an organism wakes up to the action and receives comfort or discomforts as a result.

Cycles of life and death: Cycles of life and death continues till the last moment before salvation. The soul takes birth in the physical body. The body passes through various stages of life and eventually dies. Its constituent elements mingle with the original source but the soul that had governed the body all throughout life either annihilates with the supreme soul or is slated to wander vast space. Then it finds another body, then another and the cycle of life and death continues unless and until the soul attains salvation. Nyay Shastra believes that a soul is related to the body, the sense organs and the feelings. With the death of the body, this relationship exists no more. When the soul takes rebirth, this relationship is established again.

Result: The outcome of the tendency and demerits is known as result. The result involves the feeling of sorrow and happiness. Existence of body, sense organs, subject and intellect is necessary to receive the result. Accepting and rejecting these results constitute what is known as earthly affairs.

Sorrow: Materials that generate sad feelings are known as sorrow. There are three kinds of sorrow- spiritual, physical and divine. In fact, sorrow is the basis of all the philosophies. Joy or happiness can be experienced after treading the path of sorrow. Sorrow caused by physical and mental reasons is known as spiritual sorrow. Sorrow caused by animals like snake, dog etc. is known as physical sorrow whereas sorrow caused by planetary influence is divine sorrow.

Liberation: It is getting rid of all the sorrows. Nyay Darshan describes the liberation in a prohibiting way. In the eye of Nyay, liberation is rational. Soul and liberation are the two highest things whereas rest of the things are menial.

DOUBT

The knowledge that generates doubt is the third material of Nyay. Describing the doubt, sage Gautam says -

ANAVADHAARNAATMAKAM GYAANAM SANSHEYAH|

Meaning-The knowledge from certainty is called as doubt. There are three kinds of doubts.The doubt appearing between two objects. For example, height is the common feature of a pole and a person but it is a main hurdle in the certain acceptance of any of them.

Doubt arising in extraordinary situation. For example, doubt regarding the continuous existence of earth. Being full with the smell is the special feature of the earth. But whether it is continuous or discontinuous is not certain. Hence doubt comes in existence.Doubt generated because of difference of opinions among the polymaths.

PURPOSE:

Purpose is the fourth material and the powerful means to achieve supreme state. According to sage Gautam, purpose is the main driving force for the tendency. Without a purpose, tendency has no existence.

YAMADHIKRITYA PRAVARTANTE PURUSHASTATAPRAYOJANAM |

Meaning- The objective with which a man marches ahead on the path of action is the purpose. Two kinds of purpose have been recognized- visible and invisible.

VISION:

Vision is the fifth material recognized by Nyay Shastra. Pervasiveness is the basis of vision. Vision is also of two kinds- Saadharmya (similar) and Vaidharmya (dissimilar). Nyaysutra defines the vision thus -

VYAPTISAMVEDHANBHUMIRDRISHTANTAH |

Meaning- The material on the basis of which doubt can be removed is known as vision.The subject regarding which common as well as intellectual people are unanimous is taken as vision.

PRINCIPLE: Statement arrived at finally after thorough deliberations is known as principle. It has four different kinds- 1) Sarvatantra (Conversant with the scriptures). 2) Pratitantra (Not conversant with the scriptures) 3) Adhikaran (Support) 4) Abhyupgam (imbibing).

INGREDIENTS- This is the seventh material recognized in Nyay Darshan. It assists estimation. It has five kinds- (1) Pratigya (Determination), (2) Hetu (Middle term), (3) Udaharan (example), (4) Upanaya (comparing) and (5) Nigaman (conclusion). Ingredients are not required in the estimation limited to the self. However, for the estimation that involves others requires all the five ingredients. Determination involves sound as evidence. Middle term involves estimation, example involves direct evidence. Comparing involves comparison whereas conclusion involves all the four evidences that is sound, estimation, direct, and comparison.

LOGIC: It is the eight material that helps an evidence with opposing thoughts regarding an unknown subject. Logic too has five kinds- (1) Atmashraya (depending on the self), (2) Anyonyashraya (depending on the others), (3) Chakrak (cyclic or mutual dependence of more than two logical things), (4) Anavastha (state of non-existence or instability) and (5) Anishtaprasang (fear of misfortune). Because of mutual relativity between the knowledge and origin, these kinds of logic are regarded more as demerits.

CONCLUSION: After thorough deliberation and consideration of pros and cons, the statement arrived at it is known as conclusion or inference. It is the ninth material of Nyay Darshan.

DIALOGUE or DISCUSSION: It is the tenth material recognized in Nyay Darshan. It represents an open deliberation between the teacher and the disciple carried out with a curiosity to find out the ultimate fact.

JALPA or BALDERDASH: It is the eleventh material recognized in Nyay Darshan and represents unmindful adherence to some logic either in favour or against anything with a desire to win over the situation in any condition. The main feature of balderdash is that a party tries to prove its point without solid footing.

CAVIL: Doctrine based on balderdash. Hence, apparently, such a doctrine has no solid footing.

HYPOTHESIS: In Nyay Darshan, five kinds of cause have been recognized. These are- 1) existence in favour. 2) existence with favour. 3) non-existence against. 4) false opposition and 5) unabated. In any form, other than these five, a cause becomes a hypothesis. Hypothesis also therefore has five types.

CHHAL or CRAFTINESS: Imagination of a meaning for a word other than the real meaning is described as craftiness. It has three kinds- 1) common craftiness. 2) verbal craftiness and 3) craftiness related to treatment.

JAATI: False answer in Nyay is known as ‘Jaati’. It has 24 kinds. These 24 kinds have been described by the sage Gautam in the first part of the fifth chapter of Nyay. These are as follows -

1. Saadharmyasam.
2. Vaidharmyasam.
3. Utkarshsam.
4. Apkarshsam.
5. Varnyasam.
6. Avarnyasam.
7. Vikalpasam.
8. Sadhyasam.
9. Praaptisam.
10. Apraaptisam.
11. Prasangsam.
12. Pratidrishtantsam.
13. Anutpratisam.
14. Sanshaysam.
15. Prakaransam.
16. Hetusam.
17. Arthapattisam.
18. Avisheshasam.
19. Upapattisam.
20. Upalabdhisam.
21. Anupalabdhisam.
22. Nityasam.
23. Anitysam.
24. Karyasam.

1. Pratigyaahaani.
2. Pratigyaantar.
3. Pratigyavirodh.
4. Pratigyasanyaas.
5. Hitvaantar.
6. Arthaantar.
7. Nirarthak.
8. Avigyatartha.
9. Aapaarthak.
10. Apraaptkaal.
11. Nyun.
12. Adhik.
13. Punurukt.
14. Ananubhashan.
15. Agyan.
16. Apratibha.
17. Vikshep.
18. Matanugya.
19. Pariyanuyojyopekshan.
20. Niranuyojyaanuyoga.
21. Apasiddhant.
22. Hetvabhaas.

All these kinds of Nigrahasthaan are proved helpful as mediator in a debate. No debater can go past the Nigrahasthaan ignoring all these kinds.

In the first and the fifth chapter of Nyaysutra, the first scripture of Nyay Darshan, symptoms and kinds of the materials have been discussed. In the remaining chapters, testable materials have been scrutinized. For the well being of humans, Nyay Darshan uses two types of reflections. Method of analyzing the materials, purpose, symptoms and method of testing them have been clearly proposed by the exponents of Nyay Darshan. This philosophy also points to the essential knowledge as an effective means to attain salvation.

Ingredients as materials are the most important part of Nyay philosophy. It won’t be an exaggeration, if we say that these ingredients are in a way Nyay itself. In fact, Nyay philosophy circles around the ingredients.